Week 9

After our recess week, we delved into the vast sector of Energy, from the different sources of energy, to the energy consumption patterns. Modern life as we know it, obviously cannot go on without energy, and it is unsurprising that much controversy and debate surrounds this issue. One of the things that really caught my attention was that despite all the innovations and talk on implementing renewable sources of energy, 78% of global energy consumption as of 2008 is still dependent on fossil fuels. This is worrisome since coal and oil are running out very quickly, (oil is estimated to be depleted in about 42 years, according to the US Energy Information Administration).

In the wake of the IPCC report, one of the key takeaway messages was that the technology for renewable and clean sources of energy is already available and only needs the will and drive to be implemented on a wide-scale, and quickly too. One of the mind-boggling ambitious projects that Professor Shahi shared with us was the Desertec Project that aimed to harness solar energy from solar farms across the Sahara Desert. In other words, technology is easy but people are hard.

Yet it is very interesting to see the myriad of creative ways of creating and saving energy. Even our waste can be used as sources of energy. Benedict Leong showed how Sweden is burning its trash (even to the extent of importing trash from other countries) to generate energy and Sam Lim showed us how excrement can be broken down into biofuel. I felt that instead of just filling landfills with waste and allowing methane to seep out and into the atmosphere, which can trap heat in the atmosphere far worst than carbon dioxide, it is far better to use it to meet our energy needs.

Grace Tay's presentation on Chevron's environmental disaster in Ecuador really caught my attention, especially for the people and biodiversity affected by Chevron's actions in Ecuador, and at the same time, outrage at the indifference Chevron had simply for the pursuit of profit. Large energy companies like Chevron should obviously adhere to stronger ethical practices, and not be allowed to exploit weaker vulnerable countries.

We touched on many past sources of energy but I wished we touched more on Nuclear Energy, a topic of much controversy, especially with the recent fallout from the Fukushima Nuclear Reactor. I would rate today's session an overall 9. We had a very animated discussion with a lot of new technologies, harnessing very creative processes, yet using materials already present in the world, such as Hemp, to make materials such has Hempcrete and using for Biofuels.

Week 7

Session 7 delved into the myriad of technological innovations for the agri-veterinary, environmental and industrial use, likely in response to our environmental waste problems, depleting resources and arable land. We talked about the overall migration of human populations into urban settlements, noting that in the 2000s the world population living in urban settlements has surpassed 50%, (52.1% as of 2011), leading to a host of changes to lifestyles, and thus the strain on the Earth's resources.

One interesting topic was that of the genetically-modified (GM) food controversy, which varies dramatically depending on which part of the world we are looking at. For example, GM foods are not specially labelled in the US, while they are in other countries. One of the interesting points was that consumers' tastes may even shift to prefer GM food, such as for being tastier than organic food.

Going into the process of GM, one of the takeaway points I felt was that despite all the controversy surrounding GM, humans have been changing the diversity of life by selective breeding since ages ago; only recently have we managed to directly manipulate the gene structure to bring out desirable traits. 

We touched on some interesting innovations like goat milk containing spider silk protein for a wide range of human uses. Other innovations seek to minimise the impact of waste on the environment, such as bioplastics (plastics produced from biomass) like polyactic acid (PLA) using corn. I wished we talked more on its negative impacts: Since the kernel of the corn is used to make PLA, it could mean a significant strain on the food supply should it be implemented on a wide scale. I feel that it raises the question of whether food should be used to make products like plastic, or whether they should be used for biofuels or feed livestock at all. 

Many of our discussions talked about the unequal distribution of food, due to a variety of reasons, such as economics, politics, etc. I felt that one of the messages I could take away from the session was that while technology has been very powerful and instrumental in increasing our crop yields, it does not solve the problem of world hunger, which has a whole complexity of causes.

During Cedric's presentation, he raised the notion that Agriculture is humanity's biggest mistake. It is worth pointing out that humans have lived as hunter-gatherers for about 90% of human history, up till 12,000 years ago. Therefore, it is profoundly thought-provoking that while we have thousands of years of recorded history, that is just a fraction of the timescale of human existence. I feel that without the mere invention of agriculture, civilisations would not have been possible. Would it have been better to have remained as hunter-gatherers, living in harmony with nature and without the conflicts that came with civilisation? But it would also mean that science and technology would not have progressed; humans would never have had a scientific understanding of the cosmos or even ventured off planet Earth.

I would rate the session an overall 8; we had quite a lively discussion and quite a few difficult, yet profound questions were raised.

Week 6

Today we went through the BioBusiness Revolution. We talked about a great number of innovations in Healthcare and Biomedical Science. One of the interesting uses of technology in healthcare we went through was patients seeing their doctors for consultation using tele-consultation, such as through a webcam. This is being tried in a few countries, like Singapore. An interesting idea put forward is that using such technology can save patients' commuting and waiting time, allowing them to use them on more productive means. Technology for such ideas, as well as the digital wallet that can make our lives much more convenient are already available and within easy reach but for some reason has not been implemented on a wide-scale.

We went through the causes such as: the global trend of obesity. One of the key takeaway points from this was that if obesity is not controlled, it could mean that the next generation could live shorter lives than their parents. This was thought-provoking, as with the march of technology and development, most of us would expect that we would be living longer and longer, but our sedentary lifestyles and accessibility to cheap fast food has instead brought upon this pandemic. Moving on from there, we talked about the top diseases plaguing mankind in the past and in the near future and how technology has led to this change.

During her presentation, Rebekah touched briefly on the future questions of gene-mapping. In this case: What about a person's right to the ownership and control of his genetic information? Furthermore, should relatives be notified of people's predisposition to diseases that may run in the family? I find such thought-provoking questions interesting and difficult to answer, thus I wished more time was given for discussion.

I would rate today's session a 9. Many interesting topics were discussed, such as human cloning, ethics and technological innovation, many of which do not have clear-cut answers.

Week 5

Today's topic was on ICT and World Change. We went over the evolution of mass media: how the distribution of media has changed from a one-way direction to one in which the average Joe is able to produce his own content and distribute it. 

Moving forward, we discussed the future prospects of Web 3.0, in which machines that are connected to the Internet would be able to communicate with one another almost seamlessly, automating more and more aspects of our lives.

This highlights the omnipresence of the Internet, which I feel is quite true in my country. This could have been an issue of further discussion. The Internet is easily within reach as Singapore rolls out 4G/LTE and fibre broadband networks to more and more customers.

While the future of the world with all these technological advances seems rosy, what captured my attention was that this will bring in problems such as the Digital Divide. People without access to such digital devices or network will be left behind, which would translate to a financial divide as well. This is of concern if countries were to deliberately isolate themselves from the ICT networks, or to set up firewalls to prevent access to certain parts of the Internet.

I found the topic of cloud computing interesting; it fascinated me that cloud computing is able to level the playing field so drastically for small businesses and startups. Far from being a mediocre substitution, I was convinced that cloud computing is actually far more productive, customisable and flexible.

The future holds many possibilities and one of the messages I could take away from that was that it is very exciting for us people who have ready access to the networks, yet there are still many people who are left behind.

I would rate the session as an 8. ICT is a topic that I have an interest in and I am glad that I was given the chance to do my Individual Presentation on it.

Week 4

"If everyone consumed as much energy as the average Singaporean and US Resident, the world's oil reserves would be depleted in 9 years"
Jeffries, B. WWF International, (2011). The energy report: 100% renewable energy by 2050 (ISBN 978-2-940443-26-0). Retrieved from World Wide Fund For Nature website: http://assets.panda.org/downloads/101223_energy_report_final_print_2.pdf

Our lesson started with this quote shared by Professor Shahi. While most of the world are quick to blame excessive US consumption and materialism for unsustainable growth, most of us do not see ourselves on the same level of consumption and wastage as our US counterparts. Yet, we Singaporeans also contribute significantly per capita. This was a key take-away point for me.

Moving along, we went through the key drivers of change in the world as well as several behavioural models, and then change management and leadership. Below I will touch on the issues that were of particular interest to me.

Disruptive Innovation
Disruptive innovation refers to an innovation that overtakes an existing market. This can be seen in the future when African countries start to advance and industrialise, they are able to leapfrog for example: directly to mobile networks without investing much in traditional landlines.

 In South Africa, cellphones provide virtual addresses for carpenters, painters and other laborers who post their number on handwritten signs advertising their skills
Hadebe, T. (Photographer). (2007, January 27). Cellphones fuel growth in developing world [Web Photo]. Retrieved from http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/wireless/phones/2007-01-27-cellphones_x.htm

Crossing the Chasm

Fishburne, T. (Artist). (2007). Crossing the chasm has a new meaning in today's world [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://philmckinney.com/archives/2011/08/crossing-the-chasm-has-a-new-meaning-in-todays-world.html

We were next introduced to Geoffrey Moore's model from his book of Crossing the Chasm, showing a model of how new products are adopted by different groups of the population. 

I wished we had stayed further on this topic as I noticed that there were quite a number of models (satire or not) related to it. It is also interesting to see where we stood with regards to this model. I can also infer that people of different age groups, or perhaps even upbringing and income level will find themselves on different positions on the spectra. It is a model worth considering.

"It is not necessary to change. Survival is not mandatory" 

~ W. Edwards Deming

Professor Shahi shared with us this subtle yet powerful quote. It has a sarcastic undertone, since people or organisations that are resistant to change have no obligation to do so, yet their survival will inevitably be threatened.

This quote immediately made me think about the USA in the globalised, competitive world of today. The USA, without a doubt still the richest country in the world, is at a risk as manufacturing is shifted to countries with cheaper labour. Yet the USA still has many internal problems, one of them being its public education system. Many would agree that USA would need to reinvent itself to keep up with such an ever-changing world.

Concluding Thoughts
Today was an interesting session which I would rate a 7 out of 10. Issues of interest were heartily discussed though I wished we had more time to spend on discussing Eric Sim's review of the young Chinese generation, social media and how it is transforming the Chinese society. Having traveled to China and being able to interact with the youth there, I can draw many parallels to my own life as well.

Individual Topical Review Report Outline

The Effect of the Internet and Social Media on Media Consumption and Distribution

Sim Jia Hui, Daniel (daniel.sim.2013@economics.smu.edu.sg), 1st Year Economics Student, Singapore Management University

Executive Summary

The advent of the Internet and in recent times, social media has dramatically changed the way media is consumed and distributed, as much as the invention of the Printing Press has revolutionised the spread of information, I would argue. Social media has empowered consumers to become media producers and distributors much more easily. Media, and consequently ideas and knowledge are more freely accessible. Yet, it spells trouble for media production firms and advertising companies that depend on the traditional means of media distribution.

1 Introduction

Since the past, until very recently, the consumption of media has followed the traditional pattern: Producers would create content for consumers. Technology has greatly empowered the means of distribution of producers, from the invention of the Printing Press, to the Radio and Television, and finally, the Internet.

This paper seeks to explain how the proliferation of Social Media has transformed the media consumption pattern into one of user-generated content, freely available to almost anybody connected to the Internet. The transformation is by no means complete since traditional content such as: Newspapers, Hollywood movies and television programmes are obviously still around. However, this paper will also cover the effects (both positive and negative) that the Internet and Social Media has had on these traditional media giants. Also, it will cover the political ramifications, as well as future considerations for us to take note of, as Social Media becomes ever more pervasive in our lives.

2 Historical Perspective

2.1 Wireless Technology

Radio

• Popular in the 20th Century, as it could reach a greater audience much faster, unifying them into a single audience as opposed to print media.
• Radio was a dominant form of media during WWII in the USA (1), as it could provide news of the war faster, which was of particular concern to people whose relatives were fighting in the war

King George VI's speech on radio declaring Britain's involvement in WWII (1939)(2011, January 02). King George VI addresses the nation by radio on 4 September 1939, the day after Britain declared war on Nazi Germany. Photograph: Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis [Web Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/jan/02/the-kings-speech-george-vi

Television

• Defined the 20th century and capturing major happenings in the world (2), and broadcasting to people who had access to it, such as the Apollo 11 Moon Landing of July 1st, 1969
• Responsible for a whole new media platform of TV news, entertainment TV series, as well as making sports viewable to more people

2.2 The Internet

• Commissioned for use by the USA Department of Defence (ARPANET) during the Cold War
• The late 20th century saw the gradual proliferation of the Internet with the creation of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee
• More people were getting connected to the Internet, and faster and faster speeds: Dial-up Internet gave way to Broadband, and to Fibre Optic Internet today
• More advanced devices are also connected to the Internet in recent years, such as Smartphones and Tablets, instead of just personal computers (see Section 3.3)

2.3 Social Media

• Facebook (launched by Mark Zuckerberg on February 4th, 2006) and Twitter (launched by Jack Dorsey in 2006), both iconic examples of social media, greatly improved and revolutionised the way people network, interact and share memories, photographs and videos together.
• Facebook showed rapid growth from just 1 million users in 2004 to 1.11 billion users in 2013 (3)
• Shows how in a relative short period of time (less than a decade), social media has already become integral in our lives
• Twitter is a factor in citizen journalism (see Section 3.2)
• YouTube was launched in 2005 as a video sharing website and has grown phenomenally
• One of the key drivers of change in media consumption and distribution (see Section 3.1)

3 Current Situation

3.1 YouTube

YouTube's slogan is: "Broadcast Yourself", and is designed as a website for anybody and anyone to upload their own videos for people to view, rate and comment
Logo of the week [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://cdhills.com/Site/LogooftheWeekArchives_2.html

• Massive video sharing website, with more than 1 billion unique visitors each month (4).
• YouTube challenges the traditional media distribution and consumption pattern as viewers need not pay any money to view video content and such video content is readily available 24/7
• YouTube videos are not heavily bogged down by advertisements so producers are not able to earn profits from the traditional advertisements
• Subject of much contention when copyrighted videos such as Movies and TV series get uploaded onto YouTube without the copyright holders' permission
• Instead of going against YouTube, there are media companies that collaborate with YouTube, such as VEVO, which provides sites such as YouTube with music video content
• YouTube Partner Programme: YouTube users who upload their content can benefit by being able to earn money from their content

3.2 Citizen Journalism

• The Internet has allowed blogs to flourish, which can cover a range of topics, including news and political commentary
• Blogs contribute to the rise of Citizen Journalism, allowing people to easily create and publish articles which are then easily accessible for almost anybody to see
• Such blogs pose direct challenge to the traditional news media companies that rely on newspaper sales and advertisement to make money
• The freedom of blogs mean that it is now easier to read about alternative views on the same issue, making suppression of information more difficult (see Section 3.7)
• Notable blogs include: The Huffington Post
• Microblogging has also seen increasing popularity, most notably through Twitter
• Most people use Twitter on their mobile devices
• Perfect in sharing and disseminating information, in this case, the news and latest happenings at an extremely rapid rate, by the people "on the ground"

3.3 Consumer Gadgets

• The spread of more and more advanced consumer gadgets that can connect people to the Internet mean that Social Media will become ever more pervasive in everyday life
• The first iPhone was announced in 2007 by Steve Jobs, kicking off the smartphone arms race
• The Galaxy Gear smartwatch was just announced in early September 2013 by Samsung and Google Glass may be released in 2014
• Together with increased mobile data networks (4G/LTE) in many countries such as Singapore, people can tune in to their Twitter feed or watch videos on YouTube that much easier
• Better gadgets mean that people can make high definition videos even without using a camcorder (just by using their mobile phones), making it that much easier to produce content

3. 4 Internet Talent 

• Social Media has levelled the playing field for amateur content producers: singers, filmmakers, educators (see Section 4.1)
• Amateur content producers can become very popular in a short amount of time at very little cost, without the traditional process of seeking distribution companies to make their content available to the masses

3.5 Internet Radio

• Internet Radio allows the traditional radio to be stretched across geographic boundaries
• People can have access to Internet Radio stations from any part of the world (TuneIn)
• Traditional radio stations also broadcast online as well now
• Amateur radio stations and purely Internet radio stations also see their emergence

3.6 Internet Piracy

• The Internet has allowed consumers to illegally download copyrighted media, thereby allowing them to consume without paying
• Media companies lose a large amount of earnings from Internet Piracy

3.7 Political Concerns

• With news and information being made easily accessible and free to people with microblogging (Twitter), and largely out of the reach of government control it is easier for people to stir political unrest
• Iran's 2009 Presidential Election protests were heavily influenced by Twitter (5)
• Twitter is banned in countries such as China, for fear of it being used to stir unrest

4 Future Considerations

4-1 Education

• Education can be a very viable industry to be transformed and enhanced by the Internet and Social Media
• Digital Aristotle: an Internet tutor that uses the many educational videos on the Internet (YouTube), and adapts based on students' learning styles (6)

4-2 Filter Bubbles

• Our search results will be more and more tailored to our preferences based on search engines’ algorithms
• We may end up unwittingly trapped in filter bubbles where we are not exposed to content that broaden our perspectives (7)

5 Conclusions

• The Internet and Social Media has transformed the landscape of media and the relationship between the producer and consumer
• Consumers stand to benefit since more content is freely available to them
• Yet, with more uncensored and un-verifiable user-generated content, consumers need to be wary of false or hoax news reports or contents that can be easily circulated around social media
• Though it is highly unlikely or impossible that all media consumption be brought online and through social media, traditional content producers (such as film companies) need to remain open to new ideas and change (collaborating with social media instead of fighting against it)

References

1. Radio 1900-2000. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://library.thinkquest.org/27629/themes/media/mdtradio.html
2. Anthony, A. (2013, September 07). A history of television, the technology that seduced the world – and me. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/sep/07/history-television-seduced-the-world
3. Number of active users at facebook over the years. (2013, May 01). Retrieved from http://news.yahoo.com/number-active-users-facebook-over-230449748.html
4. Statistics. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/yt/press/statistics.html
5. Grossman, L. (2009, June 17). Iran's protests: Twitter, the medium of the movement. Retrieved from http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1905125,00.html
6. Grey, C. (Producer) (2012). Digital aristotle: The future of education [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7vsCAM17O-M
7. Pariser, E. (2011). Eli pariser: Beware online "filter bubbles" [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8ofWFx525s

Week 3

The Venus Project
Jolene gave a thought provoking review of The Venus Project, the brainchild of Jacque Fresco, as a possible answer to unsustainable development. The Venus Project is a utopia, built and managed with advanced technology to efficiently use resources, ensuring there is enough for everybody. However what captured my attention was that resources are shared equally amongst everybody without the use any form of currency.

McKay, G. (2013, March 10). The Venus Project [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://misfitsarchitecture.com/2013/03/10/the-venus-project/

While the prospects of the Venus Project seemed attractive at first, anyone could quickly realise that with human self-interest, it is likely that such a society would crumble eventually.

We can see in historical examples such as the agrarian communal society of Jonestown (which I have put a link and a brief description to in the Facebook group), or the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR. It is worth noting that China, while technically still a socialist state, only managed to achieve such spectacular growth after it adopted market-based economic reforms, which I have covered in the previous blog post.

Market Driven or Technology Driven
Professor Shahi went further on to prompt the question of whether innovations are market driven or technology driven. It reminded me of the quote:

"Necessity is the mother of Invention"

~Plato

Yet, it can be seen, more clearly in recent times, that Invention can also be the cause of Necessity. In other words, people innovate and create new products when there is no prior need to it. Their innovation instead creates the demand for such a product.

Professor Shahi used the smartphone as an example, which Apple pioneered when Steve Jobs announced the iPhone in 2007, thereby opening a whole new demand market for the smartphone. 

Wearable Technology

It got me thinking that the possibilities for future consumer technology is virtually limitless. 

Miller, J. (Photographer). (2013, September 04). Samsung Galaxy Gear [Web Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.cnet.com/8301-35205_1-57600744/samsungs-galaxy-gear-smartwatch-clocks-in-at-ifa/

Just several days ago, Samsung announced the Galaxy Gear smart-watch, which together with Google's soon to be released Google Glass, will open up a whole new market for wearable technology. We are truly living in exciting times.

Concluding Thoughts
I would rate the session an overall 8. Many interesting thoughts were put forward although I wished that we could have discussed more on Kartika's presentation: "Is the Singaporean Soil Fertile for Creativity". I felt that, since many of us in the room had essentially been through the Singaporean education system, we could have given a more personal opinion on the matter.

Week 2

Shahi Organisational Behavioural Model

One interesting point of our second lesson was when Professor Shahi introduced us to his behaviour model which for one instance, can be used to explain the rise and fall of dominance of nations in world history. As one of the most powerful victors of WWII, it heralded the age of America's dominance in the world. The model further went on to explain the concept of the Rising Star, in which a nation opens herself to new ideas and change, such as the rise of the Four Asian Tigers, namely: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan; which saw rapid growth into high income and developed economies in relatively very short periods of time.

Skyline of Seoul
(2013, June). Seoul Skyline [Web Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.amazingpicturesplace.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/seoul-skyline-1024x683.jpg

But what caught my attention was the concept of the Falling Star (while I could keenly see the rise of nations, I was quite oblivious to the fall of others). Many, including Professor Shahi point us to the perhaps inevitable possibility of China replacing America as the dominant nation in the world.

The Rise of China

Relevant to the behavioural model, we moved on to Vanessa Heng's presentation about the rise of China. The past decades, in living memory for most people saw the dramatic rise in China on the political, but especially on the economic stage. Under Deng Xiaoping's market reforms since 1978, China saw a dramatic and rapid economic increase.

China's Historical Economic Growth Mike, C. [The Deng Years: An Impressive Turnaround]. Retrieved from http://www.china-mike.com/chinese-history-timeline/part-15-deng-xiaoping/

Even in the past few years, as Professor Shahi taught us, China has been creating its own brands and labels, a poignant reminder of the need for willingness and openness to change that is crucial to be become dominant in the world.

Eugenics

What really caught my attention was Sylvester Yeo's presentation on Eugenics. I had not expected that topic to come up. As Professor Shahi pointed out, the term "Eugenics" has become somewhat of a dirty term, being ruthlessly put alongside Nazism. In our pro-meritocracy driven society, the idea that certain humans are born superior to others is unnerving to me. What's more frightening is that technology can be deliberately used in the hopes that there would be more genetically superior people as opposed to genetically inferior people.

I can see the connection that many people make with Nazism, as the Nazi regime had a belief that the Aryan race was superior to all others and thus proceeded to exterminate other people in order to create lebensraum (living space) for its superior people in the later years of WWII.

Medical Benefits
However, as what Sylvester pointed out, Eugenics can be seen as a possible frontier for mankind, with much potential, for both good and evil. What if we could use genetic manipulation to prevent diseases like cancer form ever occurring and what if we could eradicate hereditary diseases such as Huntington's Disease or Down's Syndrome, in the same way smallpox was eradicated?

Overall
I would rate the session as an overall 8 out of 10; there were much more in-depth discussions and I hope that we can continue the discussion on the Facebook group.

Week 1

Brief Thoughts
Having just concluded our first lesson of Technology and World Change, Professor Gurinder Shahi and students alike raised poignant and thought provoking questions with regards to the above-mentioned.

The first part of the lesson had students sharing their opinions on Technology and World Change. Many students automatically assumed that Technology was synonymous with Information Technology (IT), specifically the latest and newest gadgets that were in easy reach. This prompted Professor Singh to ask the question whether the word: "Technology" necessarily meant IT or electronic gadgets.

Technology
In fact, technology is simply application of knowledge to improve practical aspects of our lives. One of the take-away points that I have discerned is that technology is in fact one of the traits that sets mankind apart from the rest of the animal kingdom.

Guns, Germs and Steel
For the next part of the lesson we saw a brief documentary from National Geographic about Jared Diamond's "Guns, Germs and Steel". This was immediately familiar to me, as I have seen the documentary before. It tackled the obvious yet difficult question of why certain civilisations managed to advance far more quickly than others.

Through further discussions between Professor Shahi and the students, another take-away point from the lesson was that civilisations had to remain open to trade, new ideas and technology or risk being left behind in the technological race.

Further Thoughts
I would have liked to further discuss the geographic positions of ancient civilisations that gave them natural advantages to prosper quickly, such as the existence of ancient civilisations near major rivers and tributaries. 

For example, the Nile River for the ancient Egyptian civilisation and the Yangtze River for China, which not allowed the flourishing of agriculture, but also opened up the respective regions to trade via the rivers, in an era before the railway and sea routes.

Closing Thoughts
I would rate the session as an 8; I managed to gain several new insights and a much-needed refresher on Jared Diamond's book. I would have appreciated greater student participation, in voicing their opinions on the issues at hand.